Bencao Ganmu
Bencao Gangmu (“Compendium of Materia Medica”) is a monumental Chinese medical and natural history encyclopedia compiled by Li Shizhen (1518–1593) during the Ming dynasty. Completed after nearly three decades of work, it systematises knowledge of medicinal substances gathered from classical medical texts, folk experience, and Li’s own clinical observation.
The work classifies more than 1,800 medicinal items (including plants, animals, minerals, and processed products) into a hierarchical structure of categories and sub‑categories. Within each entry, Li records names, sources, appearance, nature and flavour (qi and taste), meridian tropism (which organs or channels it affects), main therapeutic actions, indications, preparation methods, dosage, and cautions or toxicities. He also cites and critiques earlier authorities, correcting what he saw as errors and contradictions, and adding his own case notes and practical comments.
Beyond being a pharmacopoeia, Bencao Gangmu is an extensive record of Ming‑era science and culture. It preserves information on agriculture, zoology, botany, geology, food, poison, daily life customs, and even legends and beliefs linked to particular substances. This breadth made it valuable not only to physicians, but also to scholars of natural history and technology.
The book became the standard reference for traditional Chinese pharmacology for centuries, influencing East Asian medical traditions in Korea and Japan and later drawing the attention of European missionaries and scientists. Modern historians regard it as one of the most comprehensive pre‑modern works on medicinal natural resources. While many of its theoretical frameworks (such as yin‑yang and the five phases) differ from modern biomedicine, some substances it describes have since been validated pharmacologically. Bencao Gangmu thus stands at the intersection of empirical observation, classical theory, and cultural history in East Asian medicine.
Volume 1: General Introduction: Sources and Theoretical Basis.
Volume 2: General Introduction.
Volume 3: Drugs for Treating a Hundred Diseases.
Volume 4: Drugs for Treating a Hundred Diseases.
Volume 5: The Category of Waters: Waters from heaven (13 drugs); Waters from Earth (30 drugs).
Volume 6: The Category of Fires: 11 drugs.
Volume 7: The Category of Earth: 61 drugs.
Volume 8: The Category of Metals, Stones and Minerals: Metal (28 drugs); Jades (14 drugs).
Volume 9: The Category of Metals, Stones and Minerals: Stones (32 drugs).
Volume 10: The Category of Metals, Stones and Minerals: Stones (40 drugs).
Volume 11: The Category of Metals, Stones and Minerals: Halogens (20 drugs).
Volume 12: The Category of Herbs: Mountain Herbs (31 drugs).
Volume 13: The Category of Herbs: Mountain Herbs (39 drugs).
Volume 14: The Category of Herbs: Fragrant Herbs (56 drugs).
Volume 15: The Category of Herbs: Swampland Herbs (53 drugs).
Volume 16: The Category of Herbs: Swampland Herbs (73 drugs).
Volume 17: The Category of Herbs: Toxic Herbs (47 drugs).
Volume 18: The Category of Herbs: Creeping Herbs (73 drugs).
Volume 19: The Category of Herbs: Aquatic Herbs (23 drugs).
Volume 20: The Category of Herbs: Herbs from the Rocky Land (19 drugs).
Volume 21: The Categories of Herbs: Mosses (16 drugs); Miscellaneous Herbs (9 drugs). Drugs with their names recorded but not yet in use (153 drugs).
Volume 22: The Category of Cereals: Sesame, Wheat and Rice (153 drugs).
Volume 23: The Category of Cereals: Millet (18 drugs).
Volume 24: The Category of Cereals: Beans (14 drugs).
Volume 25: The Category of Cereals: Brewed and Prepared (29 drugs).
Volume 26: The Category of Vegetables: Pungent (32 drugs).
Volume 27: The Category of the Vegetables: Soft and Slippery (41 drugs).
Volume 28: The Category of the Vegetables: Mellons (11 drugs); Aquatic Products (6 drugs); Fungi (15 drugs).
Volume 29: The Category of Fruits: Five Fruits (11 drugs).
Volume 30: The Category of Fruits: Mountain Fruits (34 drugs).
Volume 31: The Category of Fruits: Exotic Fruits (31 drugs).
Volume 32: The Category of Fruits: Spices (13 drugs).
Volume 33: The Category of Fruits: Melons and Berries (9 drugs); Aquatic Fruits (6 drugs).
Volume 34: The Category of Woods: Fragrant Woods (35 drugs).
Volume 35: The Category of Woods: Arbor Woods (52 drugs).
Volume 36: The Category of Woods: Bush Woods (51 drugs).
Volume 37: The Category of Woods: Paralytic Woods (12 drugs); Bamboos (4 drugs); Miscellaneous Woods (7 Drugs).
Volume 38: The Category of Fabrics and Utensils: Fabrics (25 drugs); Utensils (54 drugs).
Volume 39: The Category of Insects, Worms and Amphibians: Oviparous (23 drugs).
Volume 40: The Category of Insects, Worms and Amphibians: Oviparous (22 drugs).
Volume 41: The Category of Insects, Worms and Amphibians: Incubated (31 drugs).
Volume 42: The Category of Insects, Worms and Amphibians: Amphibians and Worms (23 drugs).
Volume 43: The Category of Animals with Scales: Dragons (9 drugs); Snakes (17 drugs).
Volume 44: The Category of Animals with Scales: Fish (31 drugs); Fish without Scales (28 drugs).
Volume 45: The Category of Shells: Tortoises and Turtles (17 drugs).
Volume 46: The Category of Shells: Mussels and Clams (29 drugs).
Volume 47: The Category of Fowls: Aquatic Fowls (23 drugs).
Volume 48: The Category of Fowls: Land Fowls (23 drugs).
Volume 49: The Category of Fowls: Forest Fowl (17 drugs); Mountain Fowl (13 drugs).
Volume 50: The Category of Animals: Domestic Animals (28 drugs).
Volume 51: The Category of Animals: Wild Animals (38 drugs); Mice (12 drugs); others (8 drugs).
Volume 52: The Category of Humans: Humans, 37 Clauses.